Study Guide 4

1. What are the major components of blood? What are their functions?
   • Plasma (the liquid portion)
     Carries fibrinogen for clotting, alpha and beta globulins, which transport lipids and vitamins.
   • Gamma Globulins
     Aid in immune response, made up of antibodies.
   • Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
     Formed in the bone marrow they acquire hemoglobin, which acts as a transport medium for the gases oxygen and carbon monoxide.
   • White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
     Some leukocytes carry on phagocytosis, some produce enzymes that detoxify antigens, and some produce antibodies.
2. What are the major types of blood vessels?
   • Veins
     Transport blood to the heart.
   • Arteries
     Transport blood away from the heart.
   • Arteriole
     Small artery. In between vessels, insure blood is delivered to all parts of the body.
   • Capillary
     Blood vessels that allow diffusion into and out of circulatory system. Items diffused would include oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugars, and ions.
3. What are the four chambers of the heart and where are they located relative to one another?
   • Right Atrium
     Top right (user side)
   • Right Ventricle
     Lower right (user side)
   • Left Atrium
     Top left (user side)
   • Left Ventricle
     Lower left (user side)
4. Describe the circulation of blood through the heart and the body (pulmonary and systemic systems.
   • Blood is propelled by the contractions of the heart. Arteries transport blood away from the heart. The arteries divide into smaller and smaller channels until they reach the capillaries. The capillaries join up to the veins which push blood back to the heart. Systemic circulation is for the body as a whole and driven by the left side of the heart. Driven by the right side of the heart, the pulmonary system is the delivery of blood to the lungs.
5. What are each of the following?
   • atrioventicular valves
     The values which expand and contract, forcing blood into the ventricles.
   • septum
     A wall of barrier.
   • diastole
     The period of relaxation in the heart.
   • systole
     The period of contraction in the heart.
   • sinoatrial node
     A small mass of tissue that transmits impulses to the heart. It is the pacemaker of the heart andd can be described as self excitatory.
   • atrioventicular node
     A second mass of tissue that contracts in reaction to the sinoatrial node, causing the ventricles to contract.
   • pulse
     The pressure created by the contraction and relaxation of the ventricles.
   • sphygmomanometer
     What you use to monitor blood pressure.
   • atherosclerosis
     Coronary disease. Fatty deposits in the arteries reduce the amount of of blood that can flow through them.
   • strobe
     ? I don't know. Anyone? Anyone?
6. Explain the process of blood clotting.
   • Platelets are attached to an injured area. Damaged tissue and platelets release a prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin to thrombin which converts fibrogen into the clotting material fibrin.
7. What is the inflammatory reaction?
   • The second line of defense to tissue damage from injury or pathogens, it is the initial step in the repair of injured tissue.
8. Explain the process of antibody-mediated immunity (Blymphocytes, helper T-cells, clonal selection, plasma cells, memory cells).
   • Antibody-Mediated or Humoral Immunity begins with stem cells, which are produced in the bone marrow or the liver in infants. B-lymphocytes (b-cells), upon detecting the antigen react with the antigen and supply the information for producing cells that attack the specific antigen. This is clonal selection. At the same time, memory cells are produced which retain information for producing additional plasma cells which are the other product of clonal selection. Plasma cells produce antibodies (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE) which bond to antigens and attack them through neutralization, precipatation (dissolving it), agglutination (clumping) or complement activation (a process of adding proteins to the antigen, which can rough up its exterior, called opsonization, or cause inflammation, cut a hole in the antigen, which is called cytolysis, or trigger other b-cells).
9. What are antibodies? What is their structure? How do they function?
   • Antibodies are proteins made up of amino acids in different Immunoglobulin Classes (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE) which respond and react to different antigens, neutralizing them in differnt ways. Three of the five (IgG, IgD, IgE) are "Y" shaped (monomer), one (IgM) is double "Y" shaped (dimer) and one (IgM)is star shaped (pentamer). They defend against various antigens, two (IgG, IgM) through complement fixation, one (IgD) as an initiation of immune response, another as localized protection on mucousal services (IgA), and one in allergic reactions (IgE)
10. What are antigens? Haptens?
    • Antigens are foreign agents, usually a protein or polysaccharide that enters an organism and stimulates the immune system against it. Haptens combine with serum proteins to form an antigen.
11. Explain the process of cell mediated immunity (Tlymphocytes, helper T-cells, lymphokines, antigen presenting cell, major histocompatibility complex).
    • In cell mediated immunity, stem cells pass through the thymus, stimulating the production of T_H (T Helper) cells. Simultaneously, a dendritic leukocyte reacts to the anytigen to supply information for destroying the antigen in the form of an Antigen Presenting Cell (APC). The T_H cell binds with the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) on the APC. The APC secretes IL-1 to activate the T_H cell into secreting IL-2 which produces a mature T_H cell and binds to B-cells to produce antibodies (wow, I have no idea what I'm writing from my notes here. Anyone have a better way of putting it?). Cytotoxic cells are produced, which attack infected cells.
12. What are the different types of active and passive immunity? How do vaccinations work?
    • There is naturally acquired and acquired,. Naturally acquired active immunity comes from the natural entrance of antigens into the body. The body will produce antibodies and specialized lymphocytes. A naturally acquired passive immunity is when antibodies are passed from mother to fetus via the placenta or mother to infant via breast milk. Artificially acquired active immunity occurs when antigens are introduced into the body, via an injection, or vaccination. In response, the body produces antibodies and specialized leukocytes. A passive artificially acquired immunity occurs when preformed antibodies are introduced into the body via injection, e.g. antivenom.
13. What are monoclonal antibodies?
    • They are a hybrid of cancer cells and b-cells which produce desired antibodies.
14. What are allergies? Tissue rejection? Autoimmune diseases?
15. What is the anatomy of the human respiratory system?
16. What are the processes behind inspiration and expiration?
17. Explain the anatomy of the human digestive system
18. What is the process of digestion? What are the roles of the pancreas and liver?
19. Explain the interactions between the circulatory, respiratory and digestive systems?
20. What is the structure of a virus? Are they all the same size and shape?
21. What is a bacteriophage? How do bacteriophages replicate (lytic and lysogenic cycles)?
22. What is a retro virus and how does it replicate?
23. How do DNA viruses replicate?
24. How does HIV affect the human immune system?